George Washington elected president

Congress meets in New York City

first US census taken:  nearly 4 million counted

[NOTE: The first U.S. Census included nearly every individual, but there were a limited number of classifications:  free white males over age 16; free white males under 16; free white females; other free people; slaves.  Only the names of the heads of households were recorded -- everyone else was just a number.  Some leaders wanted more information to be gathered, but others objected that questions about individuals' occupation, property, religion... would constitute an invasion of privacy.  Besides, the time and effort required to obtain and record the answers would cost too much!]

yellow fever epidemic strikes Philadelphia

• 4,000 people die in 3 months!!

The yellow fever will discourage the growth of great cities in our nation & I view great cities as pestilential to the morals, the health and the liberties of man.

--Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Rush (1800)

• Philadelphia resident
• Revolutionary War leader
• prominent physician
• wrote Account of the Bilious Remitting Yellow Fever (1794)
• bilious
• stomach distress
• discolored stools and/or vomit
• cause:  excess bile

• remittent fever
• sweats and chills diminish in severity
• return next day with equal or greater force
• this is what Hippocrates called a semi-tertian fever

• intermittent fever
• fever returns every 2-3 days
• less dangerous than remittent fever
• this is what Hippocrates called a tertian or quartan fever

• contrary to the views of other Philadelphia physicians, Rush believed the yellow fever was not contagious, but rather was the result of miasmatic air emanating from rotting coffee that had been left on the wharf shortly before the disease appeared

NEW YORK, November 21.

...The committee appointed to prevent the introduction and spreading of infectious disease in this city, are happy to confirm to their fellow citizens, the agreeable intelligence, that health is restored to the city of Philadelphia--at the same time they find it necessary to make it known.

That, real danger is still to be apprehended from the bedding and clothing of those who have been ill of the malignant those who have been ill of the malignant fever.--The committee have received satisfactory information, that numbers of valuable, but infected, beds have been given to the nurses and attendants of the sick, many of which will probably be offered for sale--they are also assured, that attempts have been made to ship on freight considerable quantities of beds and bedding, from Philadelphia, for this city; which were prudently refused by the person applied to--

Therefore resolved, that in the opinion of this committee, it would be unsafe, and inexpedient, to admit the introduction into this city, of beds and bedding of any kind, or feathers in bags, or otherwise; also second hand wearing apparel of every species, coming from places infected with the yellow fever--and that whoever shall attempt so high handed an offence, against the lives and health of the inhabitants of this city, will justly merit their resentment and indignation.

The committee likewise recommend to the inhabitants of those places in New Jersey, who have immediate communication both with Philadelphia and this city, to aid them in their endeavours to avert a calamity, which has already been attended with such melancholy consequences.

And the masters of vessels coming from places lately infected are hereby notified, that unless they strictly comply with the recommendations of the committee, they will be obliged to perform quarantine, agreeable to law.

By order of the committee,
JOHN BROOME, Chairman.
New-York, Nov. 20, 1793.

From the Delaware Advertiser, printed at Wilmington, by Messrs. Adams & Smith, Saturday, August 2d, 1794.

In our last [number] we gave notice of the arrival of the Lark sloop, captain Guyer, of this port, from NEW ORLEANS, laden with Raw-Hides.

We then could not make the proper enquiries, or remark on the impropriety of the captain--nor could we allow ourselves to criminate the health-officer, (if any) of this port; but, as friends to humanity, and servants to the public, we submit to their consideration the following queries--the result of general report:

1st. In consequence of the late unhappy visitation at Philadelphia, ought not every precaution that human wisdom could devise, be adopted, and enforced, to prevent the like calamitous event?

2d. Are not the pilots of the different branches, belonging to the Delaware, under strict regulations and official orders, to the following effect, viz. "That no vessel whatever, coming from the Streights, or from other parts beyond the seas, where the infection of the plague is apprehended, particularly from NEW ORLEANS, (where the yellow fever now rages) be permitted to land any of her crew, passengers or goods, not to break bulk, or come into port, previous to a visit from the Health-Officer, and a due performance of the usual quarantine?"

3d. Have any of these orders or injunctions been observed, in the smallest degree, by this vessel, notwithstanding her DIRECT ARRIVAL FROM THE CENTRE OF CALAMITY?

4th. Are not the crew very sickly; and have not two of them died of the Yellow Fever, and been buried, since their arrival to this port?

5th. If there was no cause to suppose any infection being aboard, or any dread of the contamination being found out, why should the silent hours of NIGHT, be chosen to land from this sloop, A LARGE QUANTITY OF PUTRID HIDES?

These are of too serious import to pass unnoticed.  If such exist, and escape investigation, we again ask, What is to be expected from the dreaded consequences?  Too many scenes, distressing to the human heart, might be depicted, to awaken to a sense of danger, those whom official authority would warrant in the prevention of such arrivals, at least, until they were properly recognized and attested.

The Editors of this Paper would recommend the most PRECISE EXAMINATION of EVERY SHALLOP [small open boat] approaching their Wharves, as it is to be much dreaded, that a market will be sought for the above article, by ANY CONVEYANCE that may be least suspected.

We think it a duty we owe to humanity--to the tender and affectionate ties of society, thus to ALARM OUR NEIGHBOURS OF THE APPROACHING PESTILENCE; if it turns out contrary, we will not feel ourselves blameable, by rousing the attention of THE PEOPLE to their own welfare and happiness.

ADAMS & SMYTH.

Extract of a letter from New York, dated the 28th August, 1795.

"A kind of fever has appeared, which has carried off about 60 people since its first beginning; yet it does not appear to be that kind of fever which raged last in Philadelphia, but how it may turn out God only knows.  However for precautions's sake, Mr. C. and myself have provided a place of retreat for our and Mr. C's families, about ten miles from town--hope, however, we may not want it.  This fever has its seat in Water street, where it broke out, and none have or had it but took it there.--Not one of our congregation has been taken with it; but a person of Dr. Kenzie's Church is dead of it, who lived in the vicinity of Peck's slip. I mention this to remove your fears of its being spread so much as we hear it is represented."

In the Name and by the Authority of Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
By THOMAS MIFFLIN,
Governor of the said Commonwealth,

WHEREAS the Board of Inspectors of the Health Office of Philadelphia have reported to me, that it appears from authentic information to them exhibited, that an infectious or contagious disease exists in the city of New York, in the state of New York, and that there is reason also to believe that a similar disease exists in the town of Norfolk, in the State of Virginia, so that the safety and health of the Citizens of Philadelphia require a stoppage of intercourse with the said infected places: 

THEREFORE in pursuance of the duty in such case on me enjoined by law, but with a sincere regret for the unhappy occasion, I the said THOMAS MIFFLIN, Governor of the said Commonwealth, Have deemed it expedient to issue this Proclamation, 

Hereby prohibiting for the term of one month, or until such prohibition shall he by Proclamation lawfully revoked, all intercourse between the said city of Philadelphia and the said city of New York, and the said Town of Norfolk, and any place or places within five miles thereof respectively, as well by land as by water, UNDER THE PENALTY OF THREE HUNDRED DOLLARS, to be recovered from, and paid by, each and every person transgressing the said prohibition, in manner hereafter specified, agreeably to the terms and directions of the Act of the General Assembly, in such case made and provided.--

AND to the intent that suitable and efficient measures may be taken and pursued, for carrying into effect the said Prohibition, I have further deemed it expedient HEREBY to request that as well the Mayor, Aldermen and other Officers of the City, as the Inspectors of the Health-Office of the Port of Philadelphia, shall and will, with all possible vigilance and lawful authority and power, guard the various avenues or entrances into the said City of Philadelphia, by land and by water; so that any person, or persons, having been in the said city of New York or the said town of Norfolk within the space of ten days, and attempting to transgress the said prohibition, by approaching nearer to the said City of Philadelphia than five miles, shall be forthwith remanded to the place, or places, whence such person or persons respectively came, or shall be conveyed (at the discretion of the said Mayor and Aldermen, or of the said Inspectors) to the Hospital on State Island, and there kept as long as the case may require--

AND all Citizens, particularly those who have been in any wise concerned in, or shall be acquainted with, the intercourse between the said City of Philadelphia, and the said infected places, are earnestly exhorted and enjoined to give to the Mayor, or some other Magistrate of the said City, or to the Inspectors of the Health Office, the earliest information of any and every attempt, which shall be made to transgress, or evade the prohibition aforesaid, in order that the offender and offenders may be dealt with according to law.

Given under my hand and the great seal of the state at Philadelphia, this thirty-first day of August, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and ninety-five and of the commonwealth the twentieth.

THOMAS MIFFLIN.
By the Governor,
A.J. DALLAS,
Secretary of the commonwealth.

A Letter from New York:

The Governor of Pennsylvania has issued his Proclamation, prohibiting all intercourse by land or water, with New York, and Norfolk, for the space of one month, or until the order shall be revoked, under the penalty of 300 dollars.

The prohibition of intercourse between this city [New York] and Philadelphia is a proceeding very singular, and deserves severe animadversion.  It is a measure that, to say the least, wears the aspect of a most unfriendly disposition, as it naturally tends to create unnecessary fears abroad, which may occasion an order for our vessels to perform quarantine in foreign ports, to the great injury of our trade.

It seems, the Board of Health in Philadelphia, reported to the Governor the existence of a contagious disease in this city, on the authority of private letters, without ever writing to our Health Committee for a state of facts.  This is a most extraordinary proceeding, when the reports of our committee have repeatedly informed the public, that the epidemic now prevailing, exhibits no decisive evidence of a specific contagion.  Scarcely in one instance has an attendant on the sick taken the disease.  This fact was known to the board of Health and the Governor of Pennsylvania, and yet the world is to be alarmed for the safety of Philadelphia, when the disease has not proved contagious enough to occasion any general alarm in New York.

The disease is almost wholly local.  Most parts of the city are entirely free from it.  But one person died yesterday, and not more than five or six dangerously ill.  In the name of common sense, must all the business of New York be impeded, by the ill timed enquiries of Philadelphia?  Is this a generous return for five thousand dollars raised in New York to assist the suffering poor of Philadelphia during their calamity?  When dangers become real, will not the citizens of New York be alarmed?  Let the public judge.

The epidemic of this city is not a new disease.  It is a disease that occurs, more or less at this season in most of our sea ports.  It is not the disease that should occasion alarm, but its contagion, which depends mostly on local causes.  That contagion does not appear; when it does we will seek safety ourselves, and inform our brethren in Philadelphia.

From the New York Gazette, &c.
To the CITIZENS of PHILADELPHIA.

COUSINS,

We are all popping off here like rotten sheep.  Two hundred carcases have been buried on the battery--500 hanged for fear of catching the Yellow Fever, and about 35 or 40 guillotined--all the windows in town are broken by the firing of cannon--several of our seven story houses have fallen down SLAM BANG of their own accord--federal hall has got a FIT OF THE FIDGETS, and two yearling pigs have died of the measles--pray send us about 100,000 dollars, to stop the contagion, and it may compensate us in some measure for an attempt to make our vessels ride a 40 days quarantine in European ports.

NEW YORK.

A letter from an eminent Physician of the City of New York, to Doctor Mease, Resident Physician of the Port of Philadelphia, dated:

New York, August 31, 1795

Dear Sir,
...I have a great pleasure in saying, that the disease which appeared in the upper part of the town, has very much diminished indeed; so much so, that, for these three days past (including today,) there have not come to the knowledge of the Health Committee more than three or four cases, in any way suspicious. Those who were sick are the most of them recovering.  I think, and for myself am certain, that you may place the fullest confidence on the reports of our Health Committee.  It is composed of some of our gravest and best citizens.  The fever which we have spoke of, has not in a single instance, spread beyond the district in which it at first appeared, and there are very few instances of attendants being in any way affected with it.  I do believe, for myself, that it was imported in this vessel from the West Indies; and from the sickness first appearing among those who had connection with her, and were busied at and in the stores and wharf at which she lay, I am persuaded that they took the infection from her.  The situation of that part of the town, and state of the lots and yards, fitted and predisposed the people there to be received and operated on, by this contagion.  With respect to the rest of our city, it is as healthy as ever I knew it.

If you wish any further information, or if any thing should turn up, I will communicate it with great pleasure.

I am, with much esteem,
Yours, &c.

MALARIA (see MIASMA), bad air. 
There are varieties of malaria, the most common or the longest known, or written about, being miasmatic malaria, or marsh miasm, which is regarded as producing the various forms of intermittent and remittent fevers, and, as many believe, yellow fever.... 

Since the more systematic and microscopical investigation of various diseases, it has been shown that many other diseases, some of which are contagious, are produced by poisoned, infected, or bad air--in other words, by malaria. 

Air impregnated or polluted by sewer gas is the malaria productive of putrid sore throat or putrid fever (diphtheria), and perhaps the origin of scarlet fever.... 

It is thought by some that the term malaria should be restricted to marsh miasm, saying that air which is infected with the seeds of any disease ... but it is fairly conservative and proper to regard as malaria all air which is infected by the products of organic decomposition and putrefaction, whether vegetable or animal, and which in their origin may be so traced, although after being generated they may be contagious.

MIASMA. 
It is proved by the experience of all that there is an intimate connection between marshy districts and certain diseases, especially the various forms of intermittent and remittent fever; but the exact nature of the noxious agent, and the circumstances on which its formation and extrication depend, are even at the present day not altogether established. 

It is clearly neither heat nor moisture, for the crews of clean ships, when cruising in the tropics at a distance from land, are usually very healthy; nor is it any known gas extricated from the marsh, for the gases collected by stirring up marshes ... may be inspired without giving rise to any symptoms resembling those produced by malaria. 

It may be regarded as an established fact that the noxious agent is a product of vegetable decomposition occurring under certain conditions of heat and moisture....

Although moisture is necessary to the evolution of miasmata, an excess of it often acts as a preventive, and by impeding the access of atmospheric air retards or prevents decomposition.  This explains the apparent anomaly of an uncommonly rainy season producing opposite effects in different localities, sometimes not far distant from one another....

Chemistry has hitherto failed in detecting any special ingredient to which the air evolved by marshes owes its poisonous qualities.  The air collected in the most poisonous districts gives, on analysis, the same gases existing in the same proportions as normal air, nor ... does it give evidence of the presence of any organic body....

[I]t is found by experience that those who go out of their houses only during the day, after the morning fogs have dispersed, and before the evening mists appear, often escape the bad effects; and a full meal, with a few grains of quinine, should be taken before exposure to the morning air by travelers in a malarious district....

Dr. Wood of Philadelphia has pointed out the extraordinary and very important fact, that miasmata are neutralized, decomposed, or in some other way rendered innocuous by the air of large cities....

What it is in the air of the city which is thus incompatible with malaria, is unknown, but very probably it is connected with the results of combustion, for the fire and smoke of camps are asserted to have had the same effects.

Still unclear how the parasite enters the body.

• female mosquito bites human

• as parasite-infested mosquito sucks human's blood, she injects her own saliva containing plasmodium sporozoites (newly hatched plasmodium parasites; elongated dark objects seen below in a smear of a mosquito's salivary gland)

• sporozoites circulate in bloodstream and finally settle in liver

• in liver, sporozoites invade liver cells where they mature and multiply

• now called merozoites

• in less than 2 weeks, there may be thousands of merozoites in one liver cell

• liver cell bursts

• free merozoites invade red blood cells

• female mosquito bites human

• ingests merozoites in blood

• merozoites form oözoites (eggs) which incubate in mosquito's stomach lining

• oözoites become new sporozoites

• merozoites reproduce in red cells

• blood cells burst

• free merozoites invade new blood cells

• merozoites reproduce...

• female mosquito bites human... (and the cycle begins again)

• History 135F Home Page

• The Small Pox in Turkey (1717-1718) from the letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762);

• "Procuring the Small Pox," selected communications on the method of inoculation, from the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1714-1723);

• An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae.... (1798) by Edward Jenner (1749-1843); and

• "The North Carolina Accident," selected excerpts from The Vaccine Inquirer (1822-1823)

• A Short Account of the Malignant Fever Lately Prevalent in Philadelphia... (1794) by Mathew Carey (1760-1839);

• a letter addressed to "My beloved Sister" (September 25, 1793) written by Margaret (Hill) Morris (1737-1816);

• "An Account of the Bilious Remitting Yellow Fever, as it Appeared in Philadelphia, in the Year 1793," in Vol. III, Medical Inquiries and Observations, 4th ed. (1815) by Dr. Benjamin Rush (1746-1813);

• An Enquiry into, and Observations Upon the Causes and Effects of the Epidemic Disease Which raged in Philadelphia from the month of August till towards the middle of December 1793 (1794) by Dr. Jean Devèze (1753-1829); and

• "Yellow Fever," in Vol. XV, The International Cyclopedia (1898).