Things without Soul
All potential, no actuality, inanimate

Things with Soul
Man
Mammals
Whales
Reptiles and Fish
Octopuses and Squids
Jointed Shellfish
Insects
Mollusks
Higher Plants
Jellyfish            Sponges
Lower Plants

   All animals are divided into:

1. those that belong to the Emperor,
2. embalmed ones,
3. those that are trained,
4. suckling pigs,
5. mermaids,
6. fabulous ones,
7. stray dogs,
8. those that are included in this classification,
9. those that tremble as if they were mad,
10. innumerable ones,
11. those that are drawn with a very fine camel's hair brush,
12. others,
13. those that have just broken a flower vase,
14. those that resemble flies from a distance.

Sowing the Seeds of the Scientific Revolution

The middle of the sixteenth century marked the beginning of what some historians of science have called the Scientific Revolution. 

In their efforts to "rescue" ancient manuscripts from the errors of intervening translation, late fifteenth- and early sixteenth-century scholars (humanists) uncovered many irreconcilable differences between the natural world described in ancient and traditional texts and the natural world that presented itself to them through direct observation and fresh reasoning.  The books seemed to be saying, "Who are you going to believe?  Me?  Or your own lyin' eyes?"  For a few intrepid souls, the time had come to question these would-be authorities.

• Polish astronomer, Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) published his great work, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543), in which he made the case for replacing the long-established earth-centered model of the universe for a new, sun-centered system.

• Italian anatomist, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) introduced a new, instructor-conducted dissection-based method for teaching students of medicine about human anatomy and published his beautifully illustrated book, On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543).

• German physician and mining expert, Georgius Agricola (1494-1555) was critical of prevailing mining methods adhered to by individuals favoring a mystical or organic tradition.  Instead, he promoted a method for finding, accessing, obtaining and assaying precious metals based on careful observation of rudimentary geological processes.  His book, On Metals (1556), was widely read and used for nearly two centuries.

Calling this movement a "revolution" conveys the erroneous impression that it happened all at once, or that it was associated with one unifying principle, led by one pivotal figure, and affected all the sciences in the same way.  In fact, it was a gradual intellectual shift over at least two centuries, participated in by a wide range of individuals, each one following a slightly different path in search of the truth. 

To see examples of the variety of methods used and conclusions reached by investigators in this period, review these works from Week 3 and 4's readings:

• The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes (1597) by John Gerard (1545-1612)

• Ortus medicinae... (1648) by Jan Baptist van Helmont (1579-1644)

• The Art of Distillation... (1651) by John French (c. 1616-1657)

• works by René Descartes (1596-1650):
  • Treatise on Man (1632-c.1640)
  • The Description of the Human Body and All Its Functions.... (1647-8)
  • Passions of the Soul (1649)
• A Philosophical Essay... (1672) by Dr. Thomas Sherley (1638-1678):
  • Sections 1 & 2
  • Sections 3 & 4
  • Sections 5 & 8

• A Relation Concerning Barnacles (1677) by Sir Robert Moray (1608-1673)

• Experiments on the Generation of Insects (1668; 1688) by Francesco Redi of Arezzo (1626-1697)

• Philosophical Letters between Mr. [John] Ray (1628-1705) and several of his Ingenious Correspondents.... (1718)

Can you identify passages that reflect the author's adherence to the mystical, organic, and/or mechanical intellectual tradition? 

Does one of these traditions form the principal, or even sole, basis on which the author draws his conclusions? 

How do their investigative aims and methods compare with those of their predecessors (Aristotle, Albertus Magnus, Paracelsus...)?