1b: Shamanism

Catalpa Bow:

1) Be able to identify the following terms from The Catalpa Bow: shaman, miko (female shamans), and ascetic [21-22]; kami, okina (kami as an old man), yorishiro (temporary vessels for kami) [34-42]; tama ("soul") [43-44]; muenbotoke (spirits with no "link" [en] to the living) and onryô (angry spirits)[48-50].

2) What are the two kinds of shamans in Japan? What are the two kinds of trances associated with each? How do shamans receive their spiritual power? What are these powers?

3) In Japan, what was the original role of miko prior to the introduction of Buddhism and Chinese culture? How is the development of the ascetic tied to the introduction of Buddhism? How did the miko lose their status and power?

4) What hints are there that Noh theater developed out of shamanic rituals?

5) Why does Blacker argue that the usual scholarly separation of Shinto and Buddhism is a mistake?

6) In chapter 2 ("The Sacred Beings") Blacker discusses three of the four main types of spiritual entities. What are they and how do they relate to human beings?

9) Chapter 15 ("Exorcism") begins with a few examples of Heian period exorcisms. According to Blacker, what are the four different kinds of symptoms included under that term "possession"? The rest of the chapter gives the details of a couple of contemporary exorcisms. What is the basic scenario of an exorcism? How might the frequency of women being possessed be a reflection of women's position in Japanese society?
 



2a: Buddhism and Intro to Angry Heian Ghosts

Optional Reading on Buddhism
a. [OL] Ellwood, "Japanese Religion in Historical Perspective," pp. 19-50, 56-58.
b. [OL] Buddhism in Asia (Wikipedia article)
See also: Japanese Buddhism and Glossary of Japanese Buddhism



Reading Questions:

"Japanese Religion in Historical Perspective"
This is an overview of the history of Japanese religion, which has always been highly politicized (for a second version of Japanese history, see the URLs in the WWW Links page). This reading is also meant to give you a basic idea of political and social developments in Japan from the 8th to 19th centuries, providing a background for our discussion of ghosts and their development. In general you should be looking for references to shamanism, magic, exorcism, ghosts, and Noh theater. In addition, the following points will be especially important:

1) pp. 18-19: What are the three main recurring patterns that Ellwood and Pilgrim see in Japanese religious history?

1) Archaic Period, pp. 20-23: What role did female shamans play in early Japanese history?

2) The Coming of Buddhism, pp. 23-27: How was the introduction of Buddhism used politically by Prince Shotoku? How did the Fujiwara come to power? See also pp. 50-53: Why was Buddhism attractive to the Japanese? Why were different factions for or against it?

3) Nara Period (710-794), pp. 27-31: How was Buddhism developing among the peasants in the countryside versus the aristocracy in the capital? Who were the ubasoku and why were they so appealing to the peasants? How did Emperor Shomu attempt to assimilate the ubasoku and their followers? Pay attention to the description of En no Shokaku (or En no Gyoja) as the legendary founder of the yamabushi (mountain priests or adepts). Yamabushi will appear often in this course.

4) Heian Period (794-1185), pp. 31-35: Note how the Fujiwara used marriage politics to maintain their power. According to the description of Shingon Buddhism, founded by Kukai (773-836), how could a practioner of Shingon achieve Buddhahood "in this body, in this lifetime" (sokushin jôbutsu)? How did both Kukai and Saicho (founder of Tendai Buddhism) syncretize other religious beliefs and practices into their Buddhism? In particular, how were Tendai and Shingon able to incorporate Shinto by means of the theory of honji suijaku?

5) Kamakura Period (1185-1333), pp. 35-39: What new governing structure developed in the wake of the Genpei civil war between the Minamoto (Genji) and Taira (Heike) warrior families? Make sure you know the three major new religious movements: Zen Buddhism, established by Eisai (Rinzai sect) and Dôgen (Soto sect); Nichiren Buddhism, established by Nichren; and Pure Land Buddhism, established by Honen and Shinran. To whom did each of these new movements appeal? Why? How was Shinto reasserting itself in this period?

6) Muromachi Period (1336-1573), pp. 39-42: How was Zen instrumental in the development of the arts in this period? How did the other forms of Kamakura Buddhism continue to grow? How was the growing movement towards "purifying" Shinto related to a growing sense of Japanese nationalism?

7) Tokugawa or Edo Period (1600-1868), pp. 42-46: How did the Tokugawa government use Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism to reinforce political stability? According to Japanese Neo-Confucianim, what was the proper "way" of each class (Samurai, Peasant, Artisan, Merchant)? How did the Shinto nationalism of kokugaku-sha (national learning scholars) lead to anti-Buddhism and anti-Confucian sentiments? How did it set the stage for later nationalistic movements?

8) Skim through pp. 47-51. Princess and Priestess in Pilgrimage and Holy Place, pp. 56-58: This explanation of the institution of saigu (abstinence palace) will be useful in understanding the background of the story of Rokujô in Tale of Genji, which we will be reading next week. Rokujô's daughter is selected to be the priestess at the Ise Shrine, and so stays in the nonomiya or temporary palace in the fields for a period of purification.

9) Skim pp. 58-70. The section on Motoori Norinaga (1730-1801), pp. 64-70, will be useful in understanding the background of Edo period ghosts.

 

2a: Sugawara no Michizane

"Michizane as Tenjin":

Sugawara no Michizane was a great Chinese poet and statesman, who ran afoul of the Fujiwara who were in the process of taking political control of the country at the time. The Fujiwara falsely accused Michizane of treason, and so were able to get him banished to Kyushu, where he died in exile. Within a relatively short period after his death, he became identified as a goryô. This chapter from Borgen's book on Michizane traces the historical development of his transformation from a vengeful goryô identified with the Deity of Thunder, to the pacified Tenman Tenjin, identified as the Patron Saint (so to speak) of students and scholars. NOTE: Borgen gives a summary of the historical development of Michizane into a deity in two places: p. 309 and p. 325.

1) Michizane's revenge on his false accusers and their descendants takes what forms in the Heian period?

2) How does Michizane come to be identified with the Thunder God? How is his evil spirit pacified and transformed so that he becomes the relatively benign Deity of Scholarship (Tenman Tenjin)? What part do oracles and personal visions play in this transformation?

3) How do the common people view Michizane? That is, how does popular worship of Michizane link up to popular political protest? How did the elite Fujiwara aristocrats gain control of the cult?

"The God of Fire and Thunder," Japanese Tales, pp. 144-49

This is the vision of a yamabushi named Dôken (who in this story is given a new name, Nichizô), which he recorded in 941 and presented to the court. It is mentioned in Borgen's chapter (pp. 315-318).

1) What kind of typical shamanic experience does Dôken have?

2) How are various natural catastrophes explained in this vision?

3) According to Michizane, how did he become pacified?

4) How do the two deities, Zao Gongen (in Borgen, called Zao Bosatsu) and Hachiman, relate to the Thunder God? (For more information on Zao Gongen click here, see also "The Wizard of the Mountain" #88 from Japanese Tales; for more information on Hachiman, click here and scroll down.) Why would Zao Gongen be likely to appear to a yamabushi like Dôken?

5) What might seem odd about the description of Emperor Daigo at the end?

6) What do you think the goal of this text was? That is, what was Dôken trying to accomplish by presenting this vision to the court?

General Question to consider:

In the story of Sugawara no Michizane, how do you see beliefs about ghosts reinforcing and subverting power politics in Heian Japan? You should look for examples of how religion is used politically by the governing elite, as well as by the common people.

Class Discussion Questions to be answered for Week 2